This article investigates how migrant smuggling occurs in Indonesia. It examines how deals are struck between smugglers and irregular migrants and how national authorities as well as international organizations may be involved in the smuggling process. The article contributes to the current debate on migrant smuggling by, first, shedding light on ongoing Indonesia–Australia bilateral cooperation on the migrant smuggling issue; and second, by providing empirical evidence from Indonesia that shows not only how migrant smugglers are adapting to bilateral restrictions but also how some Indonesian authorities are involved in the migrant smuggling business. The article supports the argument that stricter immigration and asylum regimes have strengthened the demand among irregular migrants for professionally organized smugglers who arrange illicit transfers and passages.
‘People smuggling’ is defined as a consensual business transaction between an irregular migrant customer and a provider of smuggling services, which usually terminates upon arrival at the destination location.
The article draws on material collected during several short-term field studies in Western Indonesia in 2010 and 2011 as well as open-source data collection. The field work involved the collection of accounts from informants who had been asylum seekers or were at the time of data collection. The authors approached asylum seekers in public spaces known as hang-outs for asylum seekers. After an initial conversation and informing the prospective informants of the authors’ research intentions, the authors asked if they could meet with the asylum seekers for more formal conversations.
The article describes the process in which asylum seekers become smuggled migrants. Asylum seekers in Indonesia, on applying for refugee status, may have their applications rejected twice and appeal to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. If rejected three times, they can either accept ‘voluntary’ repatriation to their homeland or remain in Indonesia illegally. Formal integration into Indonesian society is out of question because Indonesian immigration policy does not permit refugees to claim permanent residency or citizenship. Some opt to return to their countries of origin; others, trapped between war-ravaged homelands and an unstable life in Indonesia, opt to risk a dangerous boat journey to Australia.
A considerable number of these irregular migrants pay various types of brokers or smugglers, at least at one stage, to enter Indonesia or to escape it. Although a substantial number of these migrants are detained in the immigration detention centres scattered around the Indonesian archipelago; many others roam freely, looking for opportunities for onward migration. However, due to the restrictive border protection arrangements between Australia and Indonesia and a number of bilateral intelligence measures for deterring ‘unwanted’ migrants, migrant smugglers have been gradually forced to adapt strategies, routes and prices.
The article explores the activities of migrant smugglers and finds that smuggling networks are often operated from outside Indonesia, mostly from secure third countries or even destination countries. Sponsors for smuggling operations have the financial means to set up the infrastructure and cover the bribery and other costs involved in smuggling operations. These ‘investors’ occasionally travel to the home countries and transit countries to establish collaboration with subordinate smuggling recruiters and implementers who then coordinate day-to-day business. Generally, these smuggling sponsors rely on collaboration with members of the diaspora of the same ethnic background or on migrants from neighbouring geographic areas for the provision of safe houses, forged documents and transportation.
The article concludes that for more than a decade, refugees and their service providers in Indonesia have been opportunistic and cunning. Unless asylum seekers can count on faster help to find protection, some of them will continue to rely on the risky services of migrant smugglers.
Through the collection and analysis of empirical material, the article makes a direct contribution to the body of knowledge on migrant smuggling practices and processes in Indonesia. The article sheds new light on the modus operandi of migrant smuggling between Indonesia and Australia, the motivations of smuggled migrants and migrant smugglers and the fees and payment for smugglers’ services.
